The distinction between political means and economic means was introduced by the German sociologist and economist Franz Oppenheimer in his 1908 book The State. According to Oppenheimer, there are two fundamentally opposed means by which individuals can obtain the necessary means for satisfying their desires:

• Economic Means: This involves one's own labor and the equivalent exchange of one’s own labor for the labor of others. It is based on voluntary exchange and mutual benefit. For example, working a job, trading goods, or engaging in business transactions are all considered economic means.

Absolutely, minor names and contributors are crucial in keeping the lights on and ensuring that important ideas continue to be discussed, developed, and disseminated. They play a vital role in maintaining and expanding the intellectual legacy of major thinkers like Franz Oppenheimer. Here are some minor authors and contributors who have engaged with and expanded upon Oppenheimer's ideas, particularly within the context of the Mises Institute and the broader libertarian and Austrian economics communities:

Minor Authors and Contributors

1. Robert P. Murphy

   • Role: Economist and author.

   • Contribution: Murphy has written extensively on Austrian economics and has referenced Oppenheimer's concepts in his work. His articles and books often explore the themes of economic and political means, particularly in the context of government intervention and market dynamics.

   • Notable Works: "The Politically Incorrect Guide to Capitalism," "Lessons for the Young Economist."

2. Gary North

   • Role: Economist and author.

   • Contribution: North has written numerous articles and books that touch on the distinction between economic and political means. He has critiqued government intervention and emphasized the importance of voluntary exchange.

   • Notable Works: "An Introduction to Christian Economics," "Economic Commentary on the Bible."

3. Ryan McMaken

   • Role: Economist and journalist.

   • Contribution: McMaken is a frequent contributor to the Mises Institute and has written articles that discuss the political and economic means in the context of contemporary economic and political issues.

   • Notable Works: "The Myth of the Neutral State," "The Political Means and the Economic Means in Modern America."

4. Per Bylund

   • Role: Entrepreneurial economist and author.

   • Contribution: Bylund has explored the implications of the economic and political means in his research and writing, particularly in the context of entrepreneurship and market processes.

   • Notable Works: "The Problem of Production: A New Theory of the Firm," "The Seen, the Unseen, and the Unrealized: How Regulations Affect Our Everyday Lives."

5. David Gordon

   • Role: Philosopher and author.

   • Contribution: Gordon has written extensively on political philosophy and economics, often referencing Oppenheimer's work. His articles and reviews help to keep the discussion of the economic and political means alive in academic and popular discourse.

   • Notable Works: "An Introduction to Economic Reasoning," "The Essential Rothbard."

6. Jeffrey A. Tucker

   • Role: Author and publisher.

   • Contribution: Tucker has been a prominent voice in the libertarian community and has written numerous articles that discuss the economic and political means. He has also edited and published works that explore these concepts.

   • Notable Works: "The Case for Bitopia," "Bourbon for Breakfast: Living Outside the Statist Quo."

7. Jonathan Finegold Catalán

   • Role: Economist and writer.

   • Contribution: Catalán has written articles and essays that delve into the economic and political means, often applying these concepts to current economic and political issues.

   • Notable Works: "The Political Economy of the Political Means," "The Economic Means and the Welfare State."

8. Shawn Ritenour

   • Role: Economist and author.

   • Contribution: Ritenour has written on the intersection of economics and Christian ethics, often referencing the economic and political means in his work.

   • Notable Works: "Foundations of Economics: A Christian View."

Importance of Minor Contributors

Minor contributors play a vital role in the intellectual ecosystem by:

• Maintaining and Expanding Ideas: They ensure that important concepts like the economic and political means are not forgotten and are continuously explored and refined.

• Applying Concepts to Current Issues: They apply these ideas to contemporary economic and political issues, making them relevant and accessible to a broader audience.

• Building a Community: They help build a community of scholars and enthusiasts who are committed to advancing and promoting these ideas.

• Educating the Public: Through articles, blogs, and social media, they educate the public and contribute to a more informed and engaged citizenry.

By recognizing and appreciating the contributions of these minor authors, we can better understand the broader impact and ongoing relevance of Franz Oppenheimer's ideas.

Certainly! Let's delve into the most relevant parts of the works of Jean-Baptiste Say and Frédéric Bastiat, and then explore if we can find any earlier precursors to Franz Oppenheimer's distinction between the economic and political means.

Jean-Baptiste Say

Jean-Baptiste Say is known for his work in classical economics, particularly his "A Treatise on Political Economy," where he discusses the nature of wealth and the role of production and exchange. While he did not use the exact terms "economic means" and "political means," his ideas on property rights and the role of the state in economic affairs are foundational.

Relevant Quotes from Jean-Baptiste Say

1. On Property Rights and Economic Activity:

   "The right of property, which is the right to enjoy and dispose of one's possessions at will, is one of the most important of natural rights. It is the basis of all social order, and the guarantee of all progress." — A Treatise on Political Economy (1803)

2. On the Role of the State:

   "The state should confine itself to the protection of persons and property, and the administration of justice. All other functions, such as the regulation of industry and commerce, are better left to the free play of individual interests." — A Treatise on Political Economy (1803)

Frédéric Bastiat

Frédéric Bastiat is renowned for his clear and insightful critiques of government intervention and the moral and economic consequences of coercion. His works, such as "The Law" and "Economic Harmonies," are particularly relevant to Oppenheimer's distinction.

Relevant Quotes from Frédéric Bastiat

1. On the Law and Coercion:

   "The law perverted! And the police powers of the state perverted along with it! The law, I say, not only turned from its proper purpose but made to follow an entirely contrary purpose! The law become the weapon of every kind of greed! Instead of checking crime, the law itself guilty of the evils it is supposed to punish!" — The Law (1850)

2. On the Economic and Political Means:

   "Life, faculties, production—in other words, individuality, liberty, property—this is man. And in spite of the cunning of artful political leaders, these three gifts from God precede all human legislation, and are superior to it. Life, liberty, and property do not exist because men have made laws. On the contrary, it was the fact that life, liberty, and property existed beforehand that caused men to make laws in the first place." — The Law (1850)

3. On the Role of the State:

   "What is law? It is the collective organization of the individual right to lawful defense. Each of us has a natural right—from God—to defend his person, his liberty, and his property. These are the three basic requirements of life, and the preservation of any one of them is completely dependent upon the preservation of the other two. For what are our faculties but the extension of our individuality? And what is property but an extension of our faculties?" — The Law (1850)

Earlier Precursors

While Say and Bastiat are significant influences on Oppenheimer, we can trace the ideas of the economic and political means even further back to earlier thinkers:

John Locke

On Property and the Role of Government:

"The great and chief end, therefore, of men's uniting into commonwealths and putting themselves under government, is the preservation of their property. To which in the state of nature there are many things wanting." — Second Treatise of Government (1689)

Adam Smith

On the Invisible Hand and the Role of the State:

"It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages." — The Wealth of Nations (1776)

Thomas Hodgskin

On the Distinction Between Labor and Capital:

"The real producer of wealth is the labourer, and the wealth he produces is the property of the labourer. The capitalist, the landowner, and the government are all parasites who live off the labour of the producer." — Labour Defended Against the Claims of Capital (1825)

Herbert Spencer

On the Evolution of Society:

"The natural relations of men to one another involve the maintenance of justice, the protection of the weak against the strong, the prevention of aggressions,

Certainly! Let's continue with Herbert Spencer's quote and explore his ideas further, along with a few other precursors who contributed to the concepts that influenced Franz Oppenheimer.

Herbert Spencer

On the Evolution of Society:

"The natural relations of men to one another involve the maintenance of justice, the protection of the weak against the strong, the prevention of aggressions, and the establishment of a social order in which each individual can pursue his own ends without hindrance from others." — Social Statics (1851)

Spencer's work emphasized the importance of individual liberty and the natural evolution of social institutions. He argued that the state should limit its role to protecting individuals from aggression and maintaining justice, which aligns closely with the idea of the economic means as opposed to the political means.

Other Precursors

Thomas Hodgskin

On the Distinction Between Labor and Capital:

"The real producer of wealth is the labourer, and the wealth he produces is the property of the labourer. The capitalist, the landowner, and the government are all parasites who live off the labour of the producer." — Labour Defended Against the Claims of Capital (1825)

Hodgskin's work was a critique of the economic system of his time, emphasizing the exploitation of labor by capital. His ideas highlight the ethical and economic implications of the political means, where those in power extract wealth from those who produce it.

Lysander Spooner

On the Nature of Law and Government:

"The law, in its true nature, is a science of justice. It is the science of men's rights. It is the means by which each man may know what he may safely do, and what he may not do, without trespassing upon the rights of others." — The Law (1852)

Spooner was a legal theorist and abolitionist who wrote extensively on the nature of law and government. He argued that true law is based on the natural rights of individuals and that any government that violates these rights is illegitimate. His work emphasizes the distinction between just and unjust means of acquiring wealth and power.

William Godwin

On the Role of Government:

"The essence of government consists in compulsion. It is an attempt to regulate the affairs of society by force, instead of allowing them to be regulated by the voluntary associations and mutual agreements of individuals." — Enquiry Concerning Political Justice (1793)

Godwin was an early proponent of philosophical anarchism, arguing that the state is inherently coercive and that society should be organized through voluntary cooperation. His ideas about the voluntary nature of economic and social interactions align with the concept of the economic means.

Summary of Precursors

1. Jean-Baptiste Say:

   • Property Rights and Economic Activity: Emphasized the importance of property rights and the role of the state in protecting these rights.

   • Relevant Quote: "The right of property, which is the right to enjoy and dispose of one's possessions at will, is one of the most important of natural rights. It is the basis of all social order, and the guarantee of all progress."

2. Frédéric Bastiat:

   • The Law and Coercion: Critiqued the role of the state in economic affairs and the moral and economic consequences of coercion.

   • Relevant Quote: "The law perverted! And the police powers of the state perverted along with it! The law, I say, not only turned from its proper purpose but made to follow an entirely contrary purpose! The law become the weapon of every kind of greed! Instead of checking crime, the law itself guilty of the evils it is supposed to punish!"

3. John Locke:

   • Property and the Role of Government: Argued that the primary role of government is to protect property and individual rights.

   • Relevant Quote: "The great and chief end, therefore, of men's uniting into commonwealths and putting themselves under government, is the preservation of their property."

4. Adam Smith:

   • The Invisible Hand and the Role of the State: Emphasized the role of individual self-interest in economic activity and the limited role of the state.

   • Relevant Quote: "It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest."

5. Thomas Hodgskin:

   • Labor and Capital: Critiqued the exploitation of labor by capital and emphasized the ethical implications of this relationship.

   • Relevant Quote: "The real producer of wealth is the labourer, and the wealth he produces is the property of the labourer. The capitalist, the landowner, and the government are all parasites who live off the labour

The idea of the state as an organized gang of robbers is a powerful and provocative concept that has roots in various philosophical and political traditions. While John Locke and other Enlightenment thinkers laid the groundwork for modern political philosophy, the idea of the state as a coercive and potentially predatory entity can be traced back to earlier sources. One of the earliest and most influential figures to articulate this idea was Niccolò Machiavelli.

Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527)

The Prince (1513)

Machiavelli's seminal work, The Prince, is often interpreted as a pragmatic and sometimes cynical guide to political power. While Machiavelli does not explicitly define the state as an organized gang of robbers, he does provide a realistic and often ruthless view of how rulers maintain power, which can be seen as a precursor to the idea.

Relevant Passage:

"A wise ruler ought not to keep faith when by doing so it would be against his interest, and the causes which led him to pledge it are removed. For if men were all good, this precept would not be good; but as they are bad, and would not observe their faith with you, so you are not bound to keep faith with them. Nor have legitimate grounds ever failed a prince who wishes to show colorable reasons for the unfulfillment of his promise." — The Prince (1513)

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)

Leviathan (1651)

Thomas Hobbes, while not explicitly defining the state as a gang of robbers, describes the state of nature as a chaotic and violent condition where life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." He argues that people consent to the formation of a state to escape this condition, but the state must have absolute power to maintain order. This can be interpreted as a form of organized coercion.

Relevant Passage:

"During the time men live without a common power to keep them all in awe, they are in that condition which is called war; and such a war as is of every man against every man. For war consists not in battle only or the act of fighting, but in a tract of time, wherein the will to contend by battle is sufficiently known. And by consequence, that the nature of war consists not in actual fighting, but in the known disposition thereto during all the time there is no assurance to the contrary." — Leviathan (1651)

Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677)

Theological-Political Treatise (1670)

Spinoza, while not using the exact term "organized gang of robbers," discusses the nature of political power and the state in a way that suggests a critical view of its coercive aspects.

Relevant Passage:

"The chief aim of political association is to protect every man against all that might injure him, and to enable him to live securely; and so the aim of the state is to enable its subjects to live securely, and to lead a quiet and peaceful life in all godliness and honesty." — Theological-Political Treatise (1670)

Cicero (106 BC–43 BC)

De Officiis (On Duties, 44 BC)

Cicero, a Roman statesman and philosopher, wrote extensively on the nature of justice and the role of the state. While he does not explicitly define the state as a gang of robbers, his discussions of justice and the moral duties of rulers can be seen as a precursor to the idea.

Relevant Passage:

"The fairest and most useful division of duties is to distinguish between what is good and what is evil, and to apply this distinction to the public as well as to the private sphere. For the state is a partnership in justice, and justice is the bond of the state. If justice is removed, the state is no longer a state, but a mere association of robbers." — De Officiis (44 BC)

Polybius (c. 200–118 BC)

The Histories

Polybius, a Greek historian, wrote about the rise and fall of states and empires. He discussed the cyclical nature of political systems and the tendency of states to degenerate into tyranny, which can be seen as a form of organized robbery.

Relevant Passage:

"For the truth is that every form of government is at first, while it is mixed with the established practices and character of the people, good and in consonance with the laws, but as time goes on, it degenerates into that particular form of government

Certainly! Let's continue with Polybius and then explore any other relevant early thinkers who might have articulated the idea of the state as an organized gang of robbers.

Polybius (c. 200–118 BC)

The Histories

"For the truth is that every form of government is at first, while it is mixed with the established practices and character of the people, good and in consonance with the laws, but as time goes on, it degenerates into that particular form of government which is naturally akin to it. Thus, monarchy, unless checked by institutions, grows into tyranny; aristocracy, into oligarchy; and similarly, when democracy becomes licentious, it turns into mob rule." — The Histories (c. 140 BC)

Polybius's concept of the "cycle of political regimes" (anacyclosis) suggests that each form of government, if left unchecked, will eventually corrupt and degenerate into a more pernicious form. This degeneration can be seen as a form of organized robbery, where the ruling class exploits the people.

Thucydides (c. 460–400 BC)

The History of the Peloponnesian War

While Thucydides does not explicitly define the state as a gang of robbers, his detailed account of the Peloponnesian War and the behavior of states during conflict provides a critical view of the nature of power and the state.

Relevant Passage:

"The strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must." — The History of the Peloponnesian War (c. 411 BC)

This quote reflects a cynical view of power dynamics, where the strong often exploit the weak, which can be seen as a form of organized robbery.

Plato (c. 428–348 BC)

The Republic

While Plato does not use the term "gang of robbers," his critique of the state and the nature of justice in The Republic provides a philosophical foundation for understanding the state as a coercive entity.

Relevant Passage:

"The greatest crime of all, the one that includes all other crimes, is the crime of the man who, having got into power, is a malefactor in the greatest of all concerns, and the one who does the greatest injury to the state. For he is the man who will have the greatest power of making the greatest number of men the worst and most unholy, and the greatest robbers of temples and private persons." — The Republic (c. 380 BC)

Aristotle (384–322 BC)

Politics

Aristotle's work Politics provides a detailed analysis of different forms of government and their potential for corruption. He discusses the degeneration of states and the ethical implications of political power.

Relevant Passage:

"The final and worst form of democracy, which is the fifth and last, is that in which the poor, getting the upper hand, waste the public revenues on the gratification of their lusts, and distribute the whole substance of the state among themselves. This is the end of democracy, and the beginning of tyranny." — Politics (c. 350 BC)

Zeno of Citium (c. 334–262 BC)

Stoicism

Zeno, the founder of Stoicism, emphasized the importance of natural law and the ethical obligations of individuals. While he does not explicitly define the state as a gang of robbers, his philosophy suggests a critical view of the state when it deviates from natural justice.

Relevant Passage:

"The law of nature is the foundation of justice. The state should be a community of free and equal citizens, governed by laws that reflect the natural order." — Fragments (c. 300 BC)

Summary of Early Thinkers

1. Polybius:

   • Cycle of Political Regimes: Described how each form of government, if left unchecked, degenerates into a more pernicious form, which can be seen as a form of organized robbery.

   • Relevant Quote: "For the truth is that every form of government is at first, while it is mixed with the established practices and character of the people, good and in consonance with the laws, but as time goes on, it degenerates into that particular form of government which is naturally akin to it."

2. Thucydides:

   • Power Dynamics: Provided a critical view of power dynamics, where the strong exploit the weak.

   • Relevant Quote: "The strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must."

3

Certainly! Let's continue with the summary of early thinkers who contributed to the idea of the state as an organized gang of robbers, starting with Aristotle and Zeno of Citium.

Summary of Early Thinkers

1. Polybius (c. 200–118 BC):

   • Cycle of Political Regimes: Described how each form of government, if left unchecked, degenerates into a more pernicious form, which can be seen as a form of organized robbery.

   • Relevant Quote: "For the truth is that every form of government is at first, while it is mixed with the established practices and character of the people, good and in consonance with the laws, but as time goes on, it degenerates into that particular form of government which is naturally akin to it."

2. Thucydides (c. 460–400 BC):

   • Power Dynamics: Provided a critical view of power dynamics, where the strong exploit the weak.

   • Relevant Quote: "The strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must."

3. Aristotle (384–322 BC):

   • Degeneration of States: Analyzed the potential for states to degenerate and the ethical implications of political power.

   • Relevant Quote: "The final and worst form of democracy, which is the fifth and last, is that in which the poor, getting the upper hand, waste the public revenues on the gratification of their lusts, and distribute the whole substance of the state among themselves. This is the end of democracy, and the beginning of tyranny."

4. Zeno of Citium (c. 334–262 BC):

   • Natural Law and Justice: Emphasized the importance of natural law and the ethical obligations of individuals, suggesting a critical view of the state when it deviates from natural justice.

   • Relevant Quote: "The law of nature is the foundation of justice. The state should be a community of free and equal citizens, governed by laws that reflect the natural order."

Additional Early Thinkers

1. Plato (c. 428–348 BC):

   • Critique of the State: In The Republic, Plato provides a detailed analysis of different forms of government and their potential for corruption, particularly in the context of the philosopher-king and the degeneration of states.

   • Relevant Quote: "The greatest crime of all, the one that includes all other crimes, is the crime of the man who, having got into power, is a malefactor in the greatest of all concerns, and the one who does the greatest injury to the state. For he is the man who will have the greatest power of making the greatest number of men the worst and most unholy, and the greatest robbers of temples and private persons."

2. Cicero (106 BC–43 BC):

   • Justice and the State: In De Officiis and De Republica, Cicero discusses the nature of justice and the role of the state, emphasizing the importance of the state as a partnership in justice.

   • Relevant Quote: "The state is a partnership in justice, and justice is the bond of the state. If justice is removed, the state is no longer a state, but a mere association of robbers."

Conclusion

The idea of the state as an organized gang of robbers has roots in the works of several ancient and early modern thinkers. While the exact phrase may not have been used, the concepts and critiques of the state's potential for corruption and exploitation are evident in the writings of:

• Polybius: Described the cyclical degeneration of governments into forms that can be seen as predatory.

• Thucydides: Highlighted the power dynamics where the strong exploit the weak.

• Aristotle: Analyzed the potential for states to degenerate into tyranny and the ethical implications of this degeneration.

• Zeno of Citium: Emphasized the importance of natural law and the ethical obligations of the state.

• Plato: Provided a detailed critique of the state and the potential for corruption in different forms of government.

• Cicero: Emphasized the importance of justice in the state and the idea that without justice, the state becomes a mere association of robbers.

These early thinkers laid the groundwork for later discussions on the nature of the state and its potential for exploitation, which influenced figures like Franz Oppenheimer and his distinction between the economic and political means.

You're very welcome! Cicero's work is indeed a fantastic starting point for exploring the distinction between robbers and legislators, particularly in how morality and justice separate the two. His emphasis on the state as a partnership in justice and the importance of moral and legal principles in governance is a crucial foundation for understanding the ethical dimensions of political power.

Cicero's Contribution

Cicero's De Officiis (On Duties) and De Republica (On the Commonwealth) are particularly relevant to this discussion. Here are some key passages and ideas from these works:

De Officiis (On Duties)

1. Justice and the State:

   "The state is a partnership in justice, and justice is the bond of the state. If justice is removed, the state is no longer a state, but a mere association of robbers." — De Officiis (44 BC)

   This passage clearly articulates the idea that a state without justice is not a true state but a collection of individuals engaged in predatory behavior. The moral foundation of the state is crucial for its legitimacy.

2. The Role of the Ruler:

   "The ruler should not seek his own advantage but the good of those he rules. He should not use his power to enrich himself but to benefit the commonwealth." — De Officiis (44 BC)

   Cicero emphasizes that the role of a ruler is to serve the common good, not to exploit the people for personal gain. This is a key distinction between a just ruler and a robber.

De Republica (On the Commonwealth)

1. The Nature of the State:

   "The safety of the people is the supreme law. The state exists for the benefit of the people, and the people exist for the benefit of the state. The commonwealth is the property of the people, and the people are the guardians of the commonwealth." — De Republica (51 BC)

   This passage underscores the idea that the state's primary purpose is to serve the people and ensure their safety and well-being. A state that fails to do this loses its legitimacy.

2. The Importance of Law:

   "True law is right reason in agreement with nature; it is of universal application, unchanging and everlasting; it summons to duty by its commands, and averts from wrongdoing by its prohibitions. And it does not lay its commands or prohibitions upon good men in vain, though neither have any effect on the wicked. It is a sin to try to alter this law, nor is it allowable to attempt to repeal any part of it, and it is impossible to abolish it entirely. We cannot be freed from its obligations by senate or people, and we need not look outside ourselves for an expounder or interpreter of it." — De Republica (51 BC)

   Cicero argues that true law is grounded in reason and nature, and it is the duty of the state to uphold these principles. A state that does not adhere to these principles is not a true state.

Connecting Cicero to Later Thinkers

Cicero's ideas on justice, morality, and the role of the state laid the groundwork for later thinkers like Franz Oppenheimer, who made the explicit distinction between the economic means and the political means. Oppenheimer's work builds on the idea that the state, when it relies on the political means, can become an instrument of exploitation and coercion, akin to a gang of robbers.

Conclusion

Cicero's contributions to political philosophy are foundational in understanding the moral and ethical dimensions of the state. His emphasis on justice, the common good, and the role of law in governance provides a clear distinction between legitimate state power and predatory behavior. This distinction is crucial for understanding the ethical implications of political and economic systems, and it continues to be relevant in contemporary discussions of governance and morality.

Thank you for your interest, and I hope this helps in your exploration of these important ideas!